Bloat occurs when too much gas is produced in the rumen.
The left flank becomes distended and breathing becomes difficult.
This may happen suddenly, especially when the animal is grazing on wet pasture in the morning. It may cause sudden death.

The animals continually belch, once each minute, to get rid of the gas. Occasionally belching stops and gas builds up in the rumen to cause bloat. As the gas builds up the left flank balloons out. The pain from this causes the animal to try to kick its belly or it stands with its back legs wide apart. It has difficulty in breathing. The animal may be in distress for several hours but in bad cases of bloat the animal will be found lying on its side and death can occur in a few hours.

Causes of bloat

Bloat can occur when the animal grazes on lush young pasture, particularly if the pasture is wet. Some plants, e.g. clover, lucerne and alfalfa are especially dangerous in causing bloat but any fast growing plants can cause it. Sometimes ruminants kept by the household and fed only feed such as dry bread can develop bloat.

Treatment for Bloat

Making the animal belch is one way of treating bloat. You can do this by:

Massaging the distended rumen through the abdominal wall.

Tying a stick in the mouth, crosswise like a horse’s bit.

Tickling the throat.

Make the animal walk around for about half an hour.

Determining Age of Cattle

(1) Under two years old (No permanent teeth)
(2) Two years three months (2 permanent teeth)
(3) Three years old (4 permanent teeth)
(4) Three years six months (6 permanent teeth)
(5) Four years (8 permanent teeth)
(6) Old animal, over four years old.

Determining Age of Buffalo

(1) Under three years old (no permanent teeth)
(2) Two years six months (2 permanent teeth)
(3) Three years six months (4 permanent teeth)
(4) Four years six months (6 permanent teeth)
(5) Five to six years (8 permanent teeth)
(6) Old animal

Foot (hoof) Care

There is an old saying “No foot, no animal”. This is true as untrimmed feet lead to bad legs and the animal cannot graze properly and will lose condition. The feet should be regularly examined and trimmed. Remember to make any cuts in a direction away from your body or the hand holding the foot.

Overgrown feet

The hoof is like your fingernail and grows continuously. Walking wears the hoof down but sometimes the hoof grows very quickly and becomes overgrown. In some places where the ground is too wet the foot can get infected and it becomes smelly and painful. This condition is called foot rot and the animal can become lame. When animals have infected or overgrown feet they cannot walk and graze properly.

Castration of ruminants
Castration is the destruction or removal of the testicles of the male. It is carried out on animals which are not wanted for breeding. Castrated animals are quiet (do not fight). Some countries insist on all imported animals being castrated.

Traditionally farmers or animal raisers do not castrate animals and both males and females are allowed to mix together. The result is that poor males are allowed to mate with the females and the young stock produced are not very good. Uncastrated males also fight so it is better to castrate the animals which are not the best for breeding. The best time to castrate animals is when they are very young (a few days old). If castration is carried out then, the operation is easier and more successful and the wound heals (gets better) very quickly.

Cattle Plague (rinderpest) and Foot and Mouth Disease

Ruminants, especially young animals, can suffer from a variety of diseases. Rinderpest (cattle plague) is highly infectious and can kill cattle and buffalo. Foot and mouth disease is very common in many countries. It affects cattle, sheep, buffalo and goats. These two diseases are very important. Rinderpest occurs in Asia, the Middle East and Africa while foot and mouth disease occurs all over the world except in Australia, New Zealand, North America and now Western Europe.

Cattle Plague (Rinderpest)

The signs of rinderpest infection in cattle and buffalo are:

First stage is a high fever (40.5°C to 41.5°C).

Red patches appear on the vagina or scrotum followed by patches on the lips, nostrils and around the eyes.

In buffalo the first sign of the disease is a discharge from the eye.

The patches develop pus (yellowish matter) in them.

Frothy saliva comes from the mouth.

The animal suffers from constipation (can not pass dung) followed by diarrhoea. The important sign is the bad smell of the dung.

After a few days the animal dies

Rinderpest is a highly infectious disease and can kill many animals especially cattle and buffalo. The disease is mainly spread through the drinking water which has been infected by the dung of sick animals but it can also spread by direct contact and in the breath. The disease affects wild animals and pigs. Deaths of wild pigs can be a sign that rinderpest is present in the area.

Foot and mouth disease

The signs of infection with foot and mouth disease are:

First stage is a high temperature.

Small blisters (bags of skin filled with fluid) appear in the mouth and on the tongue, between the claws, around the hoof and on the teats.

The blister will break and the skin over it is lost to give reddish patches.

Saliva will be produced but the animal has difficulty in eating.

The hoof may come off and the animal will be lame.

There are a few diseases which have similar signs to foot and mouth disease.

Camels have a lower dry matter intake than cattle or horses. Camels typically consume only 1.7% of bodyweight as dry matter, compared with 3-4% bodyweight for horses and cattle. Camels require 70% of dry matter intake as roughage. Camels typically have higher digestibility coefficients compared with ruminants.

Camels can efficiently digest low quality roughage’s because of the wide range of ruminal micro flora which can adapt to a range of forages, active rumination, and high levels of urea recycling.

Fermentation

Camels produce the volatile fatty acids acetate, propionate and butyrate from fermentation in their fore stomach, in similar molar proportions to ruminants given roughage based diets. Compared with ruminants, camels can extract more energy from the food they consume. This has been attributed to their specialized metabolism of glucose and urea recycling.

Energy

The ME requirement for maintenance in camels is lower than for cattle. A 450kg camel requires only 37 MJ ME for maintenance compared with 52 MJ ME for cattle.  The DE requirement for a 450kg horse is 48 MJ DE/day, which approximates 40 MJ ME/day. Camels therefore have an energy requirement similar to horses for maintenance.

Racing camels have an energy requirement of 2 MJ ME/ km travelled, i.e. an additional 20 MJ ME for an average 10km race. For feeds with an energy density of less than 10, this represents an additional feed intake of over 2 kg/day, which is a 25% increase in feed intake. The challenge therefore is to increase energy intake without increasing the amount of bulky feed, and without causing rumen dysfunction by feeding excess grain.

Camels, like horses have an increased energy demand for muscular function for racing, which requires supplementation of the basal diet with an additional energy source from hay or grain.

Glucose metabolism

The blood glucose concentrations (130 mg/100ml) in camels are much higher than in ruminants (63 mg/100ml) and horses (90 mg/100ml) (Table 1), despite having a ruminant pattern of digestion which does not yield glucose for absorption.

Although the glucose turnover rate is similar between camels and sheep (1.7 mg/min/kg bodyweight), when corrected for metabolic body size, camels have a glucose entry rate at least 60% greater than in sheep (4.3 and 2.6 mg/min/kg Bwt 0.75).

Camels have higher concentrations of the hormone glucagon compared with other mammals. The role of glucagon is to increase glucose output from the liver by increasing glycogenolysis (glucose from glycogen) and gluconeogenesis (glucose from amino acids).

Camels therefore produce greater quantities of glucose compared with true ruminants, presumably as a survival mechanism. This also allows camels to produce higher levels of ATP from glucose for muscular function, and highlights the importance of feeds that can provide glucose or glucose forming substrates (gluconeogenic amino acids).

Oil

Camels can store fat efficiently in their hump, and in the adequately fed camel, the hump can represent 20% of the camel’s total body weight.  The oxidation of fat in adipose tissue yields more energy (1g fat=9.3 kcal) than the oxidation of carbohydrates (1g=4.2 kcal).

Racing camels require an additional 2.0 MJ ME /km travelled, and therefore require an additional energy dense feed in addition to roughage. It has been suggested that inclusion of energy dense oils in racing camel diets may be beneficial. Up to 200g/day of protected fat has been fed without causing metabolic and nutritional disorders. Little research has been conducted however into the type and nature of dietary oil.

Oils are useful feed supplements to provide slow release energy for endurance exercise, or long distance races.  It is believed that camels don’t begin to metabolize fat stores until after a period of 1.5 hrs of sub maximal exercise (20km) suggesting that energy provided by fats is only of importance for endurance races. It is further suggested that oils are of no value for short races (8-10km) because of the slow metabolism of oils.

Research suggests that the maximum oil inclusion in camel diets is 3%, because of the effects of oil on reducing fermentation. There is no information available on feeding different types of oils to camels.

In cattle, it is the free fatty acid concentrations that impact on rumen fermentation, and not the total fat concentration. In ruminants, rumen function is impaired at free fatty acids (FFA) at levels greater than 3-4% in the diet. For example, polyunsaturated oils such as canola and soybean contain approximately 80% FFA, and so can only be fed at 3-4% of the diet. By comparison, saturated oils such as coconut oil contain only 30- 35% FFA, and so can be fed up to 9-10% of the diet.

In horses, polyunsaturated oils which are long chain (C18) are slowly absorbed into the lymphatics and then slowly metabolized in the liver. By comparison, medium chain fatty acids (C12-C14) such as in coconut oil are readily absorbed into the portal blood and metabolized in the liver.

Saturated oils such as coconut oils have been shown to be beneficial energy sources to both cattle and horses, and may well be beneficial to racing camels as an energy substrate. Coconut oils can be fed at higher levels, and are more readily digested and absorbed compared to polyunsaturated oils.

Protein

Basal protein requirements in camels (450 kg bodyweight) have been estimated at 300g DCP / day for adult working and racing camels.

Nitrogen retention in camels is greater than sheep given a diet of 4% crude protein. During a state of dehydration the camel’s nitrogen retention is increased by 150%, whereas in sheep it is only increased by an increment of 34%. Supplementation of urea has found to have a variable effect on the VFA producing microbes in the camel.

Camels recycle greater quantities of urea to the rumen, which in turn would support higher levels of digestion. It is reported that young camels given low protein diets respond well to supplements of bypass protein, as shown with weaned sheep and cattle. Proteins with a high biological value give the best results.

Grain feeding

The main source of roughage for the racing camel is fresh cut alfalfa. Typically, much of the camel’s energy is derived from barley. A normal diet for the racing camel consists of “10kg of alfalfa tops, 3-4kg of soaked whole barley, 1kg dates, 2L of fresh milk, occasional hay, and some electrolyte, vitamin and mineral supplements”.

Although camels perform well on these diets, they often suffer digestive upsets including colic and rumen dysfunction, similar to grain poisoning in cattle.

Camels have a continual energy demand for maintenance and muscular performance.  The form of energy in the muscle cell is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and is the only energy source that can be used for muscular contraction. ATP is stored only to a limited extent in cells, and so ATP must be produced from other sources by chemical reactions. These sources of ATP include creatinine phosphate (which is converted directly to ATP) or feed sources (glucose, fats and proteins). ATP is supplied from the feed sources either by aerobic or anaerobic chemical pathways.

Aerobic Metabolism

Aerobic metabolism is the use of oxygen to burn fuels (carbohydrate/fat) to supply ATP.  This energy source yields high levels of ATP, but more slowly than the anaerobic system. This is the main energy source for endurance and low intensity exercise.

Anaerobic Metabolism

Anaerobic metabolism produces ATP very rapidly from glucose/ glycogen without the use of oxygen, and produces lactic acid. Lactic acid production of the muscle causes muscle fatigue. The rate of energy production is very high, and is the main energy source for explosive or sprint energy. The total contribution of the anaerobic system even under intense exercise is only 30%.

Camels have an inherent capacity for anaerobic activity, and can clear lactate efficiently.  The challenge is to increase glucose supply to the racing camel, without causing starch overload, and metabolic disorders. ATP sources such gluconeogenic amino acids, and medium chain fatty acids provide an alternate to starch based diets.

With racing camels, the aim is to feed a pseudo-ruminant to perform like a horse.  That is, to provide digestible energy (DE) to supplement the energy from roughage to meet the energy demands for high intensity exercise. In horses, the additional DE is traditionally provided by feeding grains together with digestible fiber. It is now known that feeding high levels of starch to both ruminants and horses is the main cause of temperament changes (fizzy or hot behavior), and metabolic disorders including colic, laminitis and tying up. The effects of starch have been alleviated in most cases by replacement of dietary starch with digestible fiber and non starch, energy feeds such as oil. Anecdotal evidence suggests that camels also suffer from temperament changes and metabolic disorders on high grain diets.

Rumen

The mucosal membrane of the “rumen” in camels is smooth, which is different to all other ruminants. The rumen sacculations contain accessory salivary glands which aid in recycling to the rumen during periods of water deprivation.  Like ruminants, the camel “rumen” contains bacteria and protozoa.

The recycled saliva is very alkaline, and subsequently the pH of the rumen is normally pH 7.5. In the wild, the camels can browse most types of vegetation, and the rumen can operate as an efficient organ. With hand feeding grains and short chopped roughages however, the incidence of rumen dysfunction is greater.

The omasum in camels is also very different to that in cattle. The mucous membrane is glandular, and is not packed in leaves as seen in cattle. It is joined directly to the abomasum, and the contents are moist. This contributes to the higher efficiency of digestion in camels.

Physiology of Exercise

The energy cost of locomotion in camels is considerably lower than horses at moderate to high speeds. At 15km per hour, the horse requires 25% higher energy, and at 30km/hour, the horse requires 50% more energy than camels.  The energy cost of locomotion (ml O2/kg at 22 km/hour) was 85 in camels compared with 160 in horses.

The lower energy cost for locomotion in camels relates to the combined effects of

• Musculoskeletal function. Unlike cattle, camels have less fusion in the bones of the lower leg which allows them to move faster and more efficiently (Ferguson 1997)
• camels pace rather than gallop,
• Low oxygen requirement. The maximal capacity of an animal to exercise aerobically is determined by oxygen consumption. VO2max is a measure of aerobic capacity, and is the volume of oxygen consumed during a minute of exercise. The aerobic capacity of camels (VO2max) was 53ml/kg/min at 30km/hour, which is significantly lower than that in thoroughbreds (100-160 ml/kg/min). The VO2max in cattle was 55-60 ml/kg/min. This reflects the very low oxygen requirement of camels for rest and exercise in comparison with horses
• Higher lactate threshold. Camels can perform at high levels of intensity before lactate accumulates in the blood. It is considered that 4mM/L of serum lactate represents the anaerobic threshold in many species, i.e. the level of exercise above which aerobic exercise is supplemented by anaerobic exercise. The Lactate Threshold is the level of exercise beyond which the rate of lactate production from pyruvate exceeds the rate that pyruvate is used in aerobic energy metabolism in the mitochondria. The accumulation of lactate causes a block to energy production, and rapid muscle fatigue.

Camels will perform at up to 95% of VO2max before plasma lactate levels reach 4 mM/L, whereas this occurs in other species at 50-60% VO2max.  Elite horses have lactate thresholds at or above 80% of VO2max. Camels can achieve this normally.

• At rest, the racing camel depends on lipid combustion to provide energy substrates. At low, sub maximal speeds, carbohydrates are the dominant fuels, and there is a good balance between lactate metabolism and accumulation, because lactate does not accumulate until close to VO2max. Camel has extraordinarily high Krebbs cycle activity.

Muscle Fibers

There is a large variation between muscle types, and between camels in the proportion of Type I and Type II muscle fibers. Camels predominantly have slow twitch, slow contracting fibers (Type I) suitable for endurance exercise. Type II, fast acting fibers (for explosive exercise) is not common. Camel muscles have very high levels of oxidative enzymes compared to horses. Camels can utilize various types of energy substrate for ATP production for muscular activity, i.e. glycogen, oil, glucose, lactate, and amino acids.

Endurance

During endurance exercise (20km/hour for 90 minutes), camels preferentially use slow twitch muscles (Type I), which use aerobic metabolic pathways to supply ATP from glycogen and fat.

High Intensity Exercise

High intensity exercise in camels is in an 8 km race where speeds exceed 33 km/hour. During high intensity exercise, camels use fast twitch (Type II) fibers, and rely on anaerobic metabolism of glucose to produce ATP.  Once anaerobic metabolism is activated, metabolic acidosis due to lactate accumulation quickly occurs. Camels take longer than horses to clear lactate; however they can quickly restore muscle glycogen.

In horses sprinting over short distance races, the aerobic energy system still provides up to 70% of the total energy. This emphasizes the importance of the type of energy substrates supplied to support the aerobic energy system and anaerobic energy systems.

Camels have lower energy requirements than ruminants, and have evolved an efficient mechanism for nutrient recycling.

Camels have the ability to perform muscular functions such as racing at a level of intensity that exceeds the ability of horses. This unique capacity reflects the lower energy requirements for locomotion, the higher glucose supply, the lower oxygen demand, and preferential dependence on slow twitch muscle fibres which in turn rely on aerobic metabolic pathways.

For short distance, high intensity races, camels need high energy feeds to meet the additional energy demand. As with both horses and cattle, inclusion of high levels of grain in camel diets can cause metabolic disorders. Oil supplements provide energy, however the slow rate of metabolism of traditional polyunsaturated oils makes them of limited use in short distance, anaerobic metabolism races.

By comparison, tropical oils such as coconut oil are rich in medium chain fatty acids which are readily absorbed and metabolised providing an available source of cool energy.

The opportunity is to feed racing camels Cool Stance® to provide readily metabolisable energy, without causing carbohydrate overload. EzyCube® provides digestible fibre and cool energy.

1.   Background

Little research has been done on the digestive physiology and nutrition of camels. Camels are pseudo-ruminants, with a simple chambered forestomach, and is unlike the four chambered stomach found in cattle and sheep. Never the less, camels can digest high fibre feeds via fermentation pathways similar to those in true ruminants.

Camel racing is a major sport in the Middle East, with camel races over distances from over 5 to 40 km. Even though camels are pseudoruminants, the expectation is that they perform like a horse. Horses can sustain high levels of muscular exercise, because of the power to weight ratio, the balance of muscle fibre types (fast twitch and slow twitch fibres) and the forms of energy provided  by digestion.  Horses rely on energy sources which provide an immediate supply of ATP for explosive/intense muscular function. These energy sources include carbohydrates, oils, and muscle glycogen.

By comparison, ruminants rely primarily on volatile fatty acids from rumen fermentation to provide energy. These energy sources generally do not provide an immediate supply of ATP to support explosive muscular function for racing.

In practical terms, ruminants are unable to sustain intense muscular exercise and fatigue quickly. By comparison, horses can sustain both high levels of intense muscular exercise, and long term endurance exercise.

The challenge therefore is to feed camels (a pseudo-ruminant) to produce energy sources which support intense muscular exercise to enable them to perform like a horse.

2.   Camel racing

Camel race distances vary from 5km to over 40km. Camels naturally pace, and can maintain average speeds 35-40 km/hour for considerable distances, and for over 30-60 minutes. Camels can gallop at speeds well over 40km/hour, however they tire easily.

By comparison, the track record for the 3200m Melbourne Cup is held by Kingston Rule in 1990 – 3 minutes 16.3 secs, or 60km per hour.  Over a 10 to 40 km distance, horses would average approximately 20-25 km/hour.  Therefore even though camels are pseudo-ruminants, they have the capability to race at speeds similar to horses,  over longer distances, and for much longer times.

A well kept and well fed camel will rarely suffer health problems which the owner is unable to deal with. Surra (trypanosomiasis) is one of the diseases of camels for which you may need veterinary assistance. You may need advice from the veterinary officer about treatment of the disease and he may need to take blood samples from the animal in order to check for the disease.

Surra is a very common disease of camels and it has many different names in the areas of the world where it occurs. The disease is caused by very small parasites, called trypanosomes, which live in the blood of the animal.

The disease is spread by flies, e.g. horse flies, which bite the camel and carry the parasites from one animal to another. These flies cannot live where it is cold or dry and are found near water or around areas of dung. Camels should be kept away from such places especially when the flies are common after rain.

Signs of the Surra

All camel owners are familiar with this disease. Sick animals may develop a fever and do not eat. They are weak and the belly and legs become swollen. Pregnant animals can lose their young. If animals are not treated they can die within a few weeks of showing the first signs of infection. Other animals may stay sick for many months or even years. They are weak and the hump becomes smaller and smaller. These animals can develop skin problems and most suffer from lung diseases. They will usually stand facing the sun.

Internal Parasites of Camels

The infernal parasites of the camel are similar to those of sheep and cattle. Camels infected with infernal parasites are weak, have poor appetite, may have diarrhoea and do not put on weight. Young animals will suffer the most from any parasite.

Camels can be infected with different roundworms in the gut. These feed off the animal. Camels can also be infected with worms in the lungs and flukes which infect the liver.

When camels are slaughtered (killed) large cysts, fluid filled bags, may be found in the liver, lungs and other organs. These cysts contain many young tapeworms which will infect meat-eating animals.

Problems caused by Internal Parasites

The parasites in the gut cause weight loss, weakness and may cause diarrhoea and death especially in the young animal. Lungworms will cause breathing problems and infected animals develop a short, sharp cough.

The tapeworm cysts which are found in the camel will develop into adult worms if eaten by dogs, foxes or wolves.

The cysts cause damage to the body organs of the camel. Cysts in the brain will result in the animal being unable to walk or eat properly. Infected animals walk in circles; they may also become blind. However the main problem is that humans can be infected as well as the camel.

Skin Diseases of Camels

Infections of the skin caused by parasites are a big problem in camels. Camels can be infected by ticks and mites, and suffer from fly maggots feeding on wounds and in the nose. If it is not treated mange (mite infection) can lead to the death of a camel. Mange is very infectious and is second to surra in causing problems and losses in camels. Mange also results in the loss of valuable wool from llamas and alpacas.

Skin Infections of Camels

Camels suffer from infections with mites and ticks, and the maggots of flies which feed on open wounds or live in the nose.

Mites cause mange and infections often start on the neck, head or underbelly of the animal but will rapidly spread to cover the entire body if not treated.

Camels can be attacked by many different ticks. Ticks will usually be found attached to the legs, head and the underbelly.

If wounds are left untreated they will become infected with the maggots of different flies which feed on the blood and meat. The camel is also infected by maggots of the camel nasal fly. The fly lays its eggs around the nose of the camel and the maggots, which grow to about 1 centimetre long, hatch and feed on the inside of the animal’s nose.

Ringworm infections cause roundish, white spots on the head, neck and other parts of the body.

Mange in the Camel

Mange in camels, like surra, is a very important disease and is very infectious. Camels are infected by contact with infected animals, from mites on saddles and other equipment, and by rolling in dust where infected animals have been. Humans can also become infected.

The mange mite burrows into the skin and causes loss of hair and the skin becomes thick and white. Infection often starts on the head or neck, but if not quickly treated it will spread over the entire body in 2 to 3 weeks. Infected animals scratch against any solid object and do not eat well. Weight loss occurs, milk production drops and animals can die. The infection is more common in colder months and when feed is scarce.

Problems caused by Fly Maggots

Fly maggots can prevent healing of wounds and other germs may infect the wound. The maggots of the camel nasal fly are usually seen in the spring and summer. There is a discharge from the nose and the animal may sneeze. Camels are not usually seriously affected by the maggots but the activity of the adult flies

The camel’s foot is adapted for sandy soils and can be described as a tyre filled with fat instead of air.

In these days the camel walks on tarred, hard surfaced roads and ground which is littered with sharp objects such as nails, wire and broken glass. These may cause damage to the foot and result in lameness.

Viral Diseases

Camel pox is the main viral disease. There are regular outbreaks among the young camels. It is mainly a benign ailment seen mostly on the lips, head and other soft parts of the skin.

Foot-and-mouth disease is sporadically found, but on the whole the animals are unaffected. Even in wide-spread cases of the disease among cattle, no antibodies were found in the camels. A virulent outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease, which greatly affected sheep, goats and cattle did not affect the camels, although they were in close contact (Evans and Powys, 1979).

Bacterial Diseases

Anthrax which causes a swelling of the superficial lymph glands and almonellosis are two acute bacterial infections found in camels. Camels with severe symptoms of anthrax have been killed for food without causing an outbreak of the disease.

Brucellosis is not a well-identified clinical entity. Abortions are frequent but have not been found to be caused by brucellosis. Although tests have not been conclusive, brucellosis appears to be a bigger problem than previously considered. More intensive husbandry will increase incidence of this disease if no proper preventive measures are taken.

Corynebacteriosis is widespread. On slaughter, lung abcesses caused by Corynebacterium are often found. Pericarditis and pleurisy are complications which are often observed.

Pulmonary-affection-complex or, as it is known, dromedary respiratory disease complex can be caused by rickettsia, virus and pasteurella infections.

Rickettsiosis: could be an important zoonotic disease. This was determined serologically because, as yet, it has not been demonstrated clinically.

Parasitic diseases are dominant in camels, both internally and externally. Trypanosomiasis can cause deaths, but is manifested as a chronic, periodically febrile disease. It leads to abortions, premature births, and inability to feed the young. Reproduction is thus greatly reduced. The causative organism is Trypanosoma evansil.

Helminthiasis hydatidosis is endemic in certain areas of the world. Large cysts are found in lungs, liver and spleen. It is a zoonotic problem of proportions far greater than has been documented and further research is needed. Prevention and treatment are simple.

Myiasis is a seasonal problem, as are camel bots, which are found in the nasopharynx.

trying to lay eggs is annoying.

Foot Problems in Camels

The camel can eat sharp, thorny plants which other animals cannot eat. Camels can reach branches of trees and bushes to a height of 3 metres. The camel eats these woody plants by using its strong canine (dog) teeth to crush the wood.

In dry seasons when feed becomes scarce the camel can live off the fat which is stored in the hump. It can survive in this way for a very long period and will lose weight as the fat is used. A camel can lose up to 200 kg in weight during this period.

Camels recognise poisonous plants growing in the area and will not eat them. However if the camel is moved to a new area where different poisonous plants are found then it may eat those plants.

Water

The camel is well known for its ability to withstand thirst and to go without water for a long time. The camel can do this because:

• It can change its body temperature to as low as 34°C and as high as 41°C
• Camels produce small amounts of urine which is (concentrated) thick

If the camel is kept near a water point or a river it may drink small amounts of water daily. In cold weather, and when green feed is available, the camel may not drink water for months because it can get all the water it needs from the plants. In dry seasons camels drink up to 60 litres of water every 10 days. A thirsty camel in a hot dry season can drink up to 200 litres of water in one go.

Salt

Salt is very important for the camel. It needs eight times as much salt as do cattle and sheep. A camel needs 1 kg of salt a week and it is advisable to leave salt with camels every week.

The camel is unlike other animals as the female only has young every two years. During the breeding season the male camels rut and become aggressive and dangerous.

Rutting in the Male Camel

The male camel becomes mature and will mate at 6 years of age. There is a breeding season (time) when mating takes place. The breeding season depends on availability of pasture, rain and cold and will vary from region to region The male and female camels become restless and difficult to handle in the breeding season.

During the breeding season the male ruts. The signs of rutting are:

The back portion of the roof of the mouth is pushed out of the mouth like a pink ball (this only occurs in the one-humped camel).

The testicles become bigger.

Glands on the neck behind the head begin to produce a brown, bad smelling matter.

The animal will spread out its back legs and using the tail sprays urine over its back legs.

The male becomes difficult to handle and dangerous when rutting. It will attack other animals and people. Some animals, especially older males, constantly rut and become a problem. Such animals should be castrated and if there are any male animals that will not be needed for breeding they should be castrated at an early age. Ask your veterinary officer to castrate these animals.

Heat (Oestrus) in Camels

The female comes into heat for the first time when she is 3 to 4 years old. The camel can continue to breed until she is 20 to 30 years old.

The female will show a desire for mating over a 3 to 4 day period during the breeding season. If she does not become pregnant she will come into heat again every 28 days and will have 5 periods of heat in any breeding season.

Pregnancy

When a female camel is pregnant she will run away from any male which approaches her. Pregnancy lasts 390 days in the one-humped camel and lasts 406 days in the two-humped camel.

If there is plenty of feed available the young camel can be taken from its mother at 6 weeks of age and she can be mated again to produce young the next year. However productivity is low for most camels and they usually produce one young every two years.

Giving Birth (parturition) in Camels

The signs that the female is about to give birth are similar to those in other ruminants. The female becomes restless, the vulva is swollen and she will separate from the other animals. Birth commences with the appearance of the water bag followed by the two front legs and the head.

The size of the newborn camel is dependent on the size of its parents. The average calf weighs around 35 kilograms and the male is larger than the female. The camel born in dry (bad) years will weigh less than the young animal born in a good year.

The mother does not bite through the navel cord neither does she lick and clean her baby, but she will help the young to find the teats to take milk. The camel is a very good mother and does not like anyone to go near her young.

If the female loses her young she will become very distressed. In order to keep the female producing milk the skin should be taken from the young camel and stuffed with straw. The female will continue to produce milk for her “baby”. Neither the one-humped or the two-humped camel will accept orphaned young. Orphans will have to be reared by hand.

Milk and care of the young camel

Young camels start to eat grass at 2 to 3 months of age and can be weaned by 4 months of age. Leaving the calf to suckle for longer than this reduces the amount of milk available for people.

The Production of young from the Camel

A female camel will usually give birth to one young every 2 years. This means that a female will normally produce 8 young throughout her life. This is a very poor rate of reproduction.

Many young camels die before or soon after birth because:

The mother was not fed well during pregnancy.

Some camel owners do not allow the calf to take colostrum.

The male and female were related with perhaps the same mother and father. This is called inbreeding and will result in the production of dead or weak young in any type of animal. You should keep a record of the males used for breeding to try to avoid this happening.

Colostrum

It is essential for the young camel to take colostrum from its mother in order to be protected against some diseases. The mother produces colostrum for 4 to 5 days after birth. Many camel owners do not allow the young camel to freely suckle because they believe this causes the young to suffer from belly pain and diarrhoea. Some owners will prevent the young camel from taking any colostrum and this can lead to its death. You should allow the young animal to take colostrum.

Weaning the young Camel

The young camel will start to eat grass when it is 2 to 3 months old and can be weaned when it is 4 months old. Many owners leave the young camel with its mother until it is at least a year old. If it is weaned early care must be taken to introduce it slowly to solid food in order to avoid diarrhoea developing and also to prevent it picking up internal parasites.

Milk Yield and Quality

If the young camel is allowed to suckle from its mother for 1 to 2 years the amount of milk available to the owner is reduced. If it is not allowed to suckle whenever it wants, milk can be taken from the mother and the young animal can be gradually weaned to solid food. A young camel that is allowed to take milk whenever it wants becomes fat and may have difficulty in walking. It will also suffer when it is finally taken from its mother.

The camel can produce milk for 9 to 18 months. Camel milk contains the necessary proteins, sugars, fats, minerals and vitamins for the young and is a valuable food for people.

The quality and quantity of milk produced by the camel will depend on the availability of water and feed, how often she is milked and when she gave birth. A camel will give 4 to 12 kilograms of milk daily. The milk will be sweet or salty in taste depending on the plants the animal feeds on.

Camel milk is a rich source of vitamin C and forms an important source of this vitamin for desert people who are unable get this vital vitamin from fruits and vegetables.

Camel milk may be the only available milk in desert conditions where other milking animals cannot be maintained. In some countries camels are kept for their milk which is not only used for drinking but can be made into a number of foods. If camel milk is mixed with the milk of other animals e.g. cow, goat, it can be made into cheese, yoghurt and butter. Milk from the two-humped camel is used for cheese and butter.

The camel has 22 milk teeth and 32 permanent teeth. It is different to other ruminants in having two front teeth in the upper jaw. Camels also have a pair of canine (dog teeth) in both the upper and lower jaws which are used to crush woody plants for food. The first pair of permanent cheek teeth are separate from the other teeth and are dark in colour.

The Milk Teeth of the Camel

The camel has 22 milk teeth arranged as:

Ageing camels from the milk teeth

The Permanent Teeth

There are 34 permanent teeth. These are larger than the milk teeth and are arranged as follows:

Ageing camels after 1 year of age

The canines appear at 6 years of age and by the age of 7 are very large. These teeth in the upper jaw can be 4 centimetres long. The lower ones may be cut off by some camel owners. Camels can live to around 40 years of age but from 15 years of age they will have difficulty with hard feedstuffs as the front teeth wear and begin to spread.